A New Kind of Structure

1. Describe the structural problems HP had. When Mark Hurd assumed his new role as CEO of HP, he soon realized that many of the company’s structural problems were related to the fact that eleven layers of management separated him from HP’s customers. Top corporate customers of the company told him that they did not know whom to contact at HP to respond to their questions. HP’s head of corporate technology said that she had to wait three months to secure approval to hire 100 sales specialists.Moreover, HP’s salespeople were able to spend only about one-third of the time with customers; the remainder of their workday was spent in negotiating the bureaucracy inside of HP. 2. How did Mark Hurd decide to address his company’s structural problems? What do you think of his changes? How do you think the company’s customers responded to these changes? How about the company’s executives and sales force? In attempting to remedy the structural pro blems at his company, Mark Hurd first terminated the employment of underperformers and eliminated three layers of sales management.He also eliminated one sales group and merged those sales representatives into the remaining sales groups. Company executives and members of the sales force are likely pleased that the increased efficiency in the organization enables them to make decisions more quickly and to spend more time interacting with customers. Customers must be more satisfied to see that their needs and concerns are being met more effectively and efficiently. 3. Would a more mechanistic or a more organic structure be appropriate for HP? Why?Considering the rapidly changing nature of the products, and particularly the services, offered by HP, the appropriate structure for this company would have many characteristics of an organic structure. Changing times and intense competition within its industry require that HP be quickly responsive and proactive in its corporate strategy; an organic structure would be more conducive to this type of strategy. 4. What role do you think organizational structure plays in an organization’s efficiency and effectiveness?Explain. Organizational structure plays a key role in enabling a company to function smoothly, to remain responsive to its internal and external stakeholders, and to adapt to changes in the marketplace. Innovation is facilitated by fewer layers of management, and students have already learned that the survival and success of a company is usually dependent upon its ability to function as a learning organization that promotes innovation.

Physics Lab Report

Purpose Determine the acceleration in a quick sprint. Question What would the participant’s acceleration be if he/she sprints forward in a positive direction? Hypothesis/Prediction When a person sprints forward, it means he/she speeds up. Consequently, the acceleration should be positive. When the velocity accelerates at a constant rate, the acceleration should remain constant. Therefore, if the participant is moving toward a positive direction and the speed increases, then the acceleration should be positive and constant. Materials * Ticker Tape Machine * Ticker Tape * Tape * Ruler * Pencil * Graph paper Carbon paper Procedure * A piece of Ticker Tape and a Ticker Tape machine were taken. * Ticker Tape machine was plugged in. * One side of the Ticker Tape was attached to the back of a participant. * The other side of the Ticker Tape was inserted through the Ticker Tape machine. * A piece of carbon paper was placed on top of the Ticker Tape and was pinned on the machine. * The machine was started. * The participant sprinted forward. * The machine was stopped. * The used Ticker Tape was collected. * The machine was unplugged. * Using a ruler, a pencil and the Ticker Tape, all the data were recorded on a Data Table. Using the Data Table the position versus time graph and the velocity (instantaneous) versus time graph were plotted. Analysis There were in total of 37 dots recorded on the piece of the Ticker Tape. Every sixth dots represented the 1/60th of one second. Because of the lack of the information, as shown on the Data Table, every third dots were used to expand the amount of data for the more accurate results. Thus, every third dots were used to represent the half of 0. 1 second. Therefore, on both of the position versus time and velocity (instantaneous) versus time graphs, the x-axis value (the time value) went up by 0. 5 seconds. On the position versus time graph, a curved line was drawn due to the increase of the runner’s speed for each 0. 05 seconds. The runner started at 0 second from 0 centimeters and then stopped when the runner’s position was at 0. 65 seconds and 80. 1 centimeters. Also, the curved line on the graph continuously rose upward which meant that the runner never moved backward or slowed down. As evidenced by the velocity (instantaneous) versus time graph, the velocity was the lowest when it was 0 cm/s at 0 second and the highest when it reached positive196 cm/s at 0. 5 seconds. The difference of the velocities was the greatest between 0. 05 seconds and 0. 1 second. Also, the difference was the smallest between 0. 45 seconds and 0. 5 seconds. The two lines of best fit were used for more accuracy due to the scattered dots – which showed the calculated velocities of the specific time intervals – that were plotted on the graph. The first line was illustrated to show the readers the time interval of 0 second to 0. 275 seconds. The second line was used to show the time interval of 0. 2 75 seconds to 0. 65 seconds.Compared to the second line, the first line was drawn steeper due to the larger differences of the velocities of the specific time intervals. For the answer of this report’s question as listed above, when the runner sprinted forward toward a positive direction, the acceleration was able to be calculated from the velocity (instantaneous) versus time graph. In fact, there were two different accelerations during the whole time of 0. 65 seconds. Acceleration could be calculated by measuring the slopes of the velocity (instantaneous) versus time graph which were represented by the two lines of best fit.As shown on the graph, the first line was marked as and the second line was marked as . As seen on the Determination of the Acceleration page of this report, the following mathematical solutions were processed for the solution of the question. * Line * V2 = 134. 2 cm/s * V1 = 0 cm/s * t 2 = 0. 275 s * t 1 = 0 s * Acceleration = (134. 2 cm/s – 0 cm/ s) / (0. 275 s – 0 s) = 488 cm / s2 * Line * V2 = 196 cm/s * V1 = 134. 2 cm/s * t 2 = 0. 65 s * t1 = 0. 275 s * Acceleration = (196 cm/s – 134. 2 cm/s) / (0. 65 s – 0. 275 s) = 165 cm / s2With these two accelerations, it can be analyzed that the runner ran faster during the last 0. 375 seconds than he did during the first 0. 275 seconds. Evaluation This experiment examined the acceleration of a runner when sprinted toward a positive direction. Supported by the evidences and the results of this experiment, one of the two hypotheses stated above was proven false. The runner sped up in a positive direction in a straight line. Hypothetically, the velocity should have been accelerated at a constant rate so that the result could be a constant acceleration.However, according to the data collected, the runner’s first acceleration was 488 cm / s 2 from 0 second to 0. 275 seconds and the second one was 165 cm / s 2 from 0. 275 seconds to 0. 65 seconds. Since there were two different accelerations for 0. 65 seconds, there could not be a constant acceleration. Thus, the prediction of the acceleration being constant was falsified. On the other hand, the other part of the hypothesis was proven true. Theoretically, the acceleration of the runner should be positive because the runner sprinted in a positive direction.As evidenced by the two lines of best fit on the velocity (instantaneous) versus time graph, the slopes were positive due to their upward direction. Hence, since the slopes of the velocity versus time graph represented the person’s acceleration, the runner’s resulting accelerations were positives. To conclude, when the original hypotheses were compared to the calculated results, the first part – â€Å"there should be constant acceleration† – was rejected, on the contrary, the second part – â€Å"there should be a positive acceleration† – was accepted.There were several difficulties when this experiment was performed. For example, the Ticker Tape was so fragile that when the runner started to dart, the tape sometimes got ripped. Thus, it was a challenge to gather enough information to observe and analyze the results. Also, because of the rapid motion of the pin on the Ticker Tape machine, the carbon paper that was placed on top of the Ticker Tape continuously fell off from the machine. In addition, the loud noise produced from the machine created disturbing environment.To improve this lab, advanced technologies such as motion sensors could be used to keep the quiet atmosphere. Lastly, hand-drawn graphs and hand-measured values aren’t always correct. Consequently, they can lead the observers to the wrong conclusions. Therefore, using advanced graphing programs such as Graph 4. 4 could be used for more valid results. To summarize, to avoid miscalculations, advanced technologies and softwares must be used for more precise and accurate products.

HP's strategic choices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HP's strategic choices - Essay Example In the process of discussing the major accomplishments and failures made by Florina, the student will evaluate her decision-makings and the effectiveness of her strategic choices in terms of being able to cut down the operational costs of HP. One of the business strategies that Florina implemented together with the company’s business executives is not to reward employees their annual bonuses in case they fail to meet their profit target each year. (Information Gatekeepers, 2002) Even though holding on employees’ bonuses could save the company a large sum of money at the end of the year, this strategy could de-motivate some of deserving employees within the business organization. Given the fact that some of HP employees were disappointed with the top management’s decision not to release their annual bonuses, the work performance of HP employees may suffer. Back in 2002, Florina was behind the actual merger that has occurred between HP and Compaq Computer. Aside from the fact that merger between the two companies could result to cutting down its operational costs through economies of scale as it increases the market opportunity on the part of HP, some analysts have argued that it was a mistake to pursue the merger between the two companies since this strategy made HP lost some portion of its market shares in some areas. (LaMonica, 2005) Upon analyzing the situation, it is possible for HP to lose some of its market share in certain areas when the top management fails to develop a single organizational goal and business objectives which could align the employees coming from the two separate companies. When there is a miscommunication or internal conflict arising between the two groups of employees, there is a higher possibility for the quality of HP products to decrease due to miscommunication and other technical errors. One of the best ways of maintaining the competitiveness of HP in the global

The naval blockade established by the US during the Cuban missile Research Paper - 1

The naval blockade established by the US during the Cuban missile crisis was the most effective strategy that forced the Soviet Union to remove the missiles from Cuba - Research Paper Example It prevented them from conducting nuclear tests on earth’s outer space, in the atmosphere or even under water. China had so much potential of developing nuclear weapons, to further this; they signed an agreement with Moscow. China was to provide uranium ores to Moscow and in exchange get help to advance its nuclear technology. By 1950’s, China started developing these weapons on their own. This remarkable advancement in nuclear technology china was able to develop the first hydrogen bomb in 1967. In the succeeding years, the Cultural Revolutions disrupted weapon development but other sectors like scientific fields and educational ones experienced slow advancements. Extend to which china had developed in nuclear power advancements remains uncertain. These nuclear weapons developed increased insecurity in the whole world2. After the Second World War, USA was the leading power and had all the potential including nuclear power and well-trained and equipped army. The Soviet Union wanted to counter USA’s influence on the rest of the world, and therefore, they settled on forming nuclear weapons that would deploy effectively the entire European continent. Soviet Union placed their station in Cuba that was more strategically located and would favor the transportation of materials more easily. They had plotted a scheme on how they would invade on USA. the battlefield chosen would give the soviets more chance to win West Berlin into the soviet orbit3. The Soviet Union secretly started to work on building missiles from their location in Cuba. They wanted to build on military power that would be more accurate and reliable as contrasted to that of the USA. They had plans to destroy the whole of the US continent. The nuclear technologically assembled missiles would be the most powerful, giving Soviet Union considerable advantage over the USA. The missiles that the US had constructed were unreliable

The Risk and the Unkown of the Genetically Modified Foods Research Paper

The Risk and the Unkown of the Genetically Modified Foods - Research Paper Example Although resistance to change is something that is innate in almost each and every individual, oftentimes this resistance to change and predisposition to a level of conservatism act as a built-in evolutional mechanism that serves to protect the human beings from the unknown. True, humans have long sought to push the boundaries and experiment well outside the zones of comfort and recommendation. Such pushing of the envelope has given us the age of jet travel, space exploration, advanced science, and many other inventions and realities that we would not otherwise have. Yet, the fact remains that pushing the envelope and seeking to engage in something that is unknown is a process which only certain individuals within society have been comfortable at performing. Due to such an understanding, it becomes obvious that expecting all of society to engage in an activity that might be entirely outside of their comfort zone is neither ethical nor advantageous. This is very much the situation wit h regard to the use of GMOs within food supplies around the globe. With the rapid advance of science, scientists and researchers have been able to genetically modify a host of different plants and organisms as a means of tweaking the way in which they produce. This level of scientific manipulation has been able to provide the world with heartier and more productive crops; however, the fact of the matter is that the true levels of drawbacks that are exhibited within these genetically modified organisms are not fully understood. Due to the level of incomplete knowledge that exists with regard to GMOs within food, many nations around the world have banned them entirely. However, the United States and several other developed nations have not. As a means of analyzing the potential drawbacks and negatives that GMO might exhibit within a nation’s health and food supply, this particular analysis will focus upon several of these determinants and seek to provide relevant and up-to-date information as a means to prove why GMO should be restricted from the food supply until a further level of knowledge is able to be derived with regard to its overall health impacts. Perhaps the first and most obvious reason that GMO food exhibits a clear and definitive concern to the human population is with regard to the unknown level of impact that GMO necessarily poses to human health. Shockingly, very little independent research has been performed on GMOs to determine the level of impact, if any, that they might have with regard to human health. Moreover, seed company agreements forbid the sale or use of any of their seeds for the process of independent research, all but stymieing any attempt that an independent researcher might make in order to draw a level of inference with regard to whether or not GMOs are harmful, beneficial or neutral. However, the fact that seed manufacturers are so particular about including the caveat that their products cannot be sold or utilised for i ndependent research sheds a level of particular doubt in the mind of the reader with regard to the overall health concerns that use of GMO might present for any society’s food supply. Moreover, another particular level of the unknown that exists with regard to the use of GMO in food is the fact that many of the GMO food sources currently in the market have been proven to have a built-in resistance to certain types of antibiotics. For instance, Amflora, a type of

Discuss the statement In the future, hierarchical management Essay

Discuss the statement In the future, hierarchical management structures will be less evident. The management of intellectual - Essay Example 23). Hierarchical management structure is an organisational structure in which each and every entity of an organisation follows a top down hierarchical level. It is true that the trend of hierarchical organisational management structure is shifting towards the flatter organisational management structure to enhance organisational communication process between several departments of the organisation (Boxall and Purcell, 2007, p. 98). There are several advantages and significance of flatter organisational structure. It enhances decision making process, operation cost control and better communication between the employees of different departments in an organisation. The essay will discuss on the statement that â€Å"In the future, hierarchical management structures will be less evident†. ... These economic issues and fluctuating global economic environment will motivate the leaders or the management of the organisation to adopt flatter organisational management hierarchy (Buchanan and Huczynski, 2010, p. 31). Each and every organisation is trying to focus on the business operation cost reduction. It is highly important for the organisations to control the operation cost in order to ensure high profit maximisation (Buelens, Sinding, Waldstrom, Krietner and Kinicki, 2011, p. 69). Several leading organisations are adopting flatter organisational structure in order to reduce business operation cost. A flat organisational structure can be defined as an organisation structure with limited or no management level between the staff and management level employees. Flat organisation structure deals with low employee supervision (Burke, 2012, p. 36). The leaders in a flat organisation use to promote the employees and involve them in the decision making process. Organisation can gain huge benefit through flat organisational structure in this economic distress period. The major objective of flat organisation structure is to eliminate the level and salaries of middle management. This reduction in management level and salaries help the organisation to reduce overall business operation cost and budget of an organisation (Dawson, 2003, p. 84). In addition to this, flatter organisational structure elevates the level of responsibility of the employees in an organisation as this organisational structure brings more efficiency in the organisational communication process (Maylor and Blackmon, 2005, p. 89). As this organisational structure removes the excess layers of a management structure, the speed of coordination and communication

Human Sexuality and Proponents of the Religious Viewpoint Essay

Human Sexuality and Proponents of the Religious Viewpoint - Essay Example By discriminating against homosexual, society becomes oblivious to the different factors that result in sexual attraction. Furthermore, the United States has one of the most elaborate bills of rights, one emulated by several democracies all over the world. It, therefore, becomes redundant for such a country to formulate and implement policies that stifle the very human rights that its bill of rights seek to defend. The proponents of the abolition of gay marriages are often religious leaders who continue to teach their followers that homosexuality is a sin and therefore not acceptable. They consist of both a section of Christians and their Muslim counterparts. While Christians continue to face division on the issue with several clerics already endorsing the gay marriages, their Muslim counterparts continue to maintain a more stringent view to the issue of homosexuality. Most Islamic states outlaw such acts thereby denying their population the freedom of choice. However, those in Ameri can society enjoy the liberal human rights that safeguard the interest of every human (Shanty and Patit 22). Religion is an important aspect of human life. Religion one of the most essential social pillars that hold the social fabric in societies together, it provides a benchmark with which people assess their behaviours thereby resulting in a cohesive society in which everyone enjoys equality. The American constitution safeguards the freedom of religion and worship thereby allowing the population to own different religions and viewpoints on their social life.

Business finance - The Dividend Decision Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business finance - The Dividend Decision - Essay Example Because, they are the ultimate owners of the company, and have to suffer even if both profits/losses made by the company. The dividend policy, its growth and valuation of shares are closely related with the company’s earning capacity. Dividend Discount Model (DDM) is one of the important tool or technique used to analyze the equity share valuation. So, dividend is an important tool to maximize the growth of cash flows and earning capacity of shareholders. The share capital of Carnock plc. is 1.5 million ordinary shares(i.e.15,00,000shares) with a nominal value of 100p., so the overall equity capital of  £150000000. The ultimate market value of shares is 225p / share, and the Finance Director of the Carnock plc decided to provide yield to the share holders at 12.5%. One of the main objectives of the finance manager is to maximize both the return on ordinary shares and total wealth of the company. Earnings Per Share (EPS) means the earnings made by a company during a particular accounting period on each of its ordinary or equity shares. It is computed by dividing the Net Profit after interest, tax and preference dividend by number of equity shares. Number of Equity shares= Equity Financing/Market price per share. Here, market price per share amounts to 225p/share The concept EPS and theoretical ex right per share is closely related to each other. For this calculation of Right Shares or right issue is also required. â€Å"The dividend valuation model states that the market value of a security is equal to the present value of

Prejudice Definition Essay Example for Free

Prejudice Definition Essay During the process of communication the vast majority of people judge cultural values in their own image and likeness. Their ethnic and cultural values serve as a criterion for judgment. Really, it is slightly confusing but the main reason for watching the foreign programming is to let the viewer ‘feel’ ethnocentrism. Some things or even an overwhelming majority of what you will see in the foreign film of program will feel a bit ‘off’ or even downright ‘wrong’ for an average American. This feeling occurs due to ethnocentrism. The paper examines how such an attitude can have influence on an individual’s behavior and response from another culture, how society wide ethnocentrism can affect relationships and understandings of other societies, and how it can have an adverse impact on business practices for multinational corporations. Japanese version of the foreign film â€Å"Shall We Dance† will be used as an illustration for some aspects of the paper. Ethnocentrism is a psychological reaction, which occurs when a representative of one culture perceives, sees, values and tries to understand other cultures and their behaviors through prism of his own culture. The person considers the elements of his own culture (standards, roles, values, etc) as natural and â€Å"right†, while the elements of other cultures and nations are considered to be unnatural and â€Å"wrong†. The customs and traditions of his own culture are considered to be â€Å"universal† and â€Å"right† as well. The film â€Å"Shall We Dance† by Masayuki Suo tells us the story of Shohei Sugiyama, who falls in love but not in other woman (being married), but in the art of dancing. When we watch the film, we feel the differences between Japanese and American cultures. Japanese culture seems to be very odd, alien and strange, as the world of dance socials and private lessons is considered ‘shameful’ and ‘improper’ for a Japanese person. The film gets insight into Japanese customs and traditions, explaining that in Japan married couples are more reserved in relation to each other and rarely express their emotions in public (e.g. never say ‘I love you’, or hold hands, etc.). The American nation, on contrary, is more emotional and more ‘open’, therefore we feel really odd while watching the movie. The ethnocentrism that occurs in result of watching the foreign programming evidently has an impact on our behavior. Probably, to a certain extent we are unable to understand the behavior of other cultures in a manner different from that one dictated by our own cultural environment. So, how such an attitude can have influence on a person’s behavior and response from another culture and how society wide ethnocentrism can affect relationships and understandings of other societies? As with any social-psychological phenomenon, ethnocentrism cannot be examined as entirely positive or entirely negative. Although ethnocentrism often put obstacles in the way of intergroup (intercultural) communication, it supports positive ethnical identity and keeps the integrity and specificity peculiar to a certain culture. At the same time, ethnocentrism is inevitable part of our live being a logical consequence of socialization and familiarization with another culture and understandings of other societies. The person’s response predominantly occurs in the form of comparison – a peaceful nonidentity. Yet, ethnocentrism can have an adverse impact on business practices for multinational corporations, because it often impedes effective intergroup (interethnic and international) communication (Allport 1954). Interethnic comparison can be expressed in the form of contraposition or setting off (e.g. the people deny intercultural differences; proclaim their culture to be superior; sometimes people perceive cultural differences as something that imposes a threat to their existence and try to withstand them, often resulting in conflicts between different cultures, etc) that, in its turn, implies at least preconception and prejudice in relation to other cultures and has an adverse impact on business practices for multinational corporations. References Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Garden City, NY: Doubleday

Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Example for Free

Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Pre-Socratic is the expression commonly used to describe those Greek thinkers who lived and wrote between 600 and 400 B.C. It was the Pre-Socratics who attempted to find universal principles which would explain the natural world from its origins to mans place in it. Although Socrates died in 399 B.C., the term Pre-Socratic indicates not so much a chronological limit, but rather an outlook or range of interests, an outlook attacked by both Protagoras (a Sophist) and Socrates, because natural philosophy was worthless when compared with the search for the good life. To give the Pre-Socratic thinkers their full due would require an article of encyclopedic scope. Given that, I have decided to list a number of sites on individual Pre-Socratic thinkers.Anaximander1. Life and SourcesThe history of written Greek philosophy starts with Anaximander of Miletus in Asia Minor, a fellow-citizen of Thales. He was the first who dared to write a treatise in prose, which has been called traditionally On Nature. This book has been lost, although it probably was available in the library of the Lyceum at the times of Aristotle and his successor Theophrastus. It is said that Apollodorus, in the second century BCE, stumbled upon a copy of it, perhaps in the famous library of Alexandria. Recently, evidence has appeared that it was part of the collection of the library of Taormina in Sicily, where a fragment of a catalogue has been found, on which Anaximander’s name can be read. Only one fragment of the book has come down to us, quoted by Simplicius (after Theophrastus), in the sixth century AD. It is perhaps the most famous and most discussed phrase in the history of philosophy.We also know very little of Anaximander’s life. He is said to have led a mission that founded a colony called Apollonia on the coast of the Black Sea. He also probably introduced the gnomon (a perpendicular sun-dial) into Greece and erected one in Sparta. So he seems to have been a much-traveled man, which is not astonishing, as the Milesians were known to be audacious sailors. It is also reported that he displayed solemn manners and wore pompous garments. Most of the information on Anaximander comes from Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus, whose book on the history of philosophy was used, excerpted, and quoted by many other authors, the so-called doxographers, before it was lost. Sometimes, in these texts words or expressions appear that can with some certainty be ascribed  to Anaximander himself. Relatively many testimonies, approximately one third of them, have to do with astronomical and cosmological questions. Hermann Diels and Walter Kranz have edited the doxography (A) and the existing texts (B) of the Presocratic philosophers in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin 1951-19526. (A quotation like â€Å"DK 12A17†³ means: â€Å"Diels/Kranz, Anaximander, doxographical report no.17†³).| 2. The â€Å"Boundless† as Principle According to Aristotle and Theophrastus, the first Greek philosophers were looking for the â€Å"origin† or â€Å"principle† (the Greek word â€Å"archà ªÃ¢â‚¬  has both meanings) of all things. Anaximander is said to have identified it with â€Å"the Boundless† or â€Å"the Unlimited† (Greek: â€Å"apeiron,† that is, â€Å"that which has no boundaries†). Already in ancient times, it is complained that Anaximander did not explain what he meant by â€Å"the Boundless.† More recently, authors have disputed whether the Boundless should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without limits, or perhaps as that which has no qualifications, or as that which is inexhaustible. Some scholars have even defended the meaning â€Å"that which is not experienced,† by relating the Greek word â€Å"apeiron† not to â€Å"peras† (â€Å"boundary,† â€Å"limit†), but to â€Å"perao† (â€Å"to experience,â⠂¬  â€Å"to apperceive†). The suggestion, however, is almost irresistible that Greek philosophy, by making the Boundless into the principle of all things, has started on a high level of abstraction. On the other hand, some have pointed out that this use of â€Å"apeiron† is atypical for Greek thought, which was occupied with limit, symmetry and harmony. The Pythagoreans placed the boundless (the â€Å"apeiron†) on the list of negative things, and for Aristotle, too, perfection became aligned with limit (Greek: â€Å"peras†), and thus â€Å"apeiron† with imperfection. Therefore, some authors suspect eastern (Iranian) influence on Anaximander’s ideas. Anaximenes (d. 528 BCE) According to the surviving sources on his life, Anaximenes flourished in the mid 6th century BCE and died around 528. He is the third philosopher of the Milesian School of philosophy, so named because like Thales and Anaximander, Anaximenes was an inhabitant of Miletus, in Ionia (ancient Greece). Theophrastus notes that Anaximenes was an associate, and possibly a student, of Anaximander’s. Anaximenes is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. In this way, he differed with his predecessors like Thales, who held that water is the source of all things, and Anaximander, who thought that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. 2. Doctrine of Change Given his doctrine that all things are composed of air, Anaximenes suggested an interesting qualitative account of natural change: [Air] differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. (DK13A5) Influence on later Philosophy Anaximenes’ theory of successive change of matter by rarefaction and condensation was influential in later theories. It is developed by Heraclitus (DK22B31), and criticized by Parmenides (DK28B8.23-24, 47-48). Anaximenes’ general theory of how the materials of the world arise is adopted by Anaxagoras(DK59B16), even though the latter has a very different theory of matter. Both Melissus (DK30B8.3) and Plato (Timaeus 49b-c) see Anaximenes’ theory as providing a common-sense explanation of change. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the basis of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the central concept in a theory of diseases. By providing cosmological accounts with a theory of change, Anaximenes separated them from the realm of mere speculation and made them, at least in conception, scientific theories capable of testing. Thales of Miletus (c. 620 BCE – c. 546 BCE) The ancient Greek philosopher Thales was born in Miletus in Greek Ionia. Aristotle, the major source for Thales’s philosophy and science, identified Thales as the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the originating substances of matter and, therefore, as the founder of the school of natural philosophy. Thales was interested in almost everything, investigating almost all areas of knowledge, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and politics. He  proposed theories to explain many of the events of nature, the primary substance, the support of the earth, and the cause of change. Thales was much involved in the problems of astronomy and provided a number of explanations of cosmological events which traditionally involved supernatural entities. His questioning approach to the understanding of heavenly phenomena was the beginning of Greek astronomy. Thales’ hypotheses were new and bold, and in freeing phenomena from godly intervention, he paved the way towards scientific endeavor. He founded the Milesian school of natural philosophy, developed the scientific method, and initiated the first western enlightenment. A number of anecdotes is closely connected to Thales’ investigations of the cosmos. When considered in association with his hypotheses they take on added meaning and are most enlightening. Thales was highly esteemed in ancient times, and a letter cited by Diogenes Laertius, and purporting to be from Anaximenes to Pythagoras, advised that all our discourse should begin with a reference to Thales (D.L. II.4). 1. The Writings of Thales Doubts have always existed about whether Thales wrote anything, but a number of ancient reports credit him with writings. Simplicius (Diels, Dox. p. 475) specifically attributed to Thales authorship of the so-called Nautical Star-guide. Diogenes Laertius raised doubts about authenticity, but wrote that ‘according to others [Thales] wrote nothing but two treatises, one On the Solstice and one On the Equinox‘ (D.L. I.23). Lobon of Argus asserted that the writings of Thales amounted to two hundred lines (D.L. I.34), and Plutarch associated Thales with opinions and accounts expressed in verse (Plutarch, De Pyth. or. 18. 402 E). Hesychius, recorded that ‘[Thales] wrote on celestial matters in epic verse, on the equinox, and much else’ (DK, 11A2). Callimachus credited Thales with the sage advice that navigators should navigate by Ursa Minor (D.L. I.23), advice which may have been in writing. Diogenes mentions a poet, Choerilus, who declared that ‘[Thales] was the first to maintain the immortality of the soul’ (D.L. I.24), and in De Anima, Aristotle’s words ‘from what is recorded about [Thales]‘, indicate that Aristotle was working from a written source. Diogenes recorded that  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ[Thales] seems by some accounts to have been the first to study astronomy, the first to predict eclipses of the sun and to fix the solstices; so Eudemus in his History of Astronomy. It was this which gained for him the admiration of Xenophanes and Herodotus and the notice of Heraclitus and Democritus’ (D.L. I.23). Eudemus who wrote a History of Astronomy, and also on geometry and theology, must be considered as a possible source for the hypotheses of Thales. The information provided by Diogenes is the sort of material which he would have included in his History of Astronomy, and it is possible that the titles On the Solstice, and On the Equinox were a vailable to Eudemus. Xenophanes, Herodotus, Heraclitus and Democritus were familiar with the work of Thales, and may have had a work by Thales available to them. A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole. The word solstice is derived from the Latin sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still), because at the solstices, the Sun stands still in declination; that is, the seasonal movement of the Suns path (as seen from Earth) comes to a stop before reversing direction. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In many cultures the solstices mark either the beginning or the midpoint of winter and summer. The term solstice can also be used in a broader sense, as the date (day) when this occurs. The day of the solstice is either the longest day of the year (in summer) or the shortest day of the year (in winter) for any place on Earth, because the length of time between sunrise and sunset on that day is the yearly maximum or minimum for that place. Proclus recorded that Thales was followed by a great wealth of geometers, most of whom remain as honoured names. They commence with Mamercus, who was a pupil of Thales, and include Hippias of Elis, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Philippus of Mende, Euclid, and Eudemus, a friend of Aristotle, who wrote histories of arithmetic, of astronomy, and of geometry, and many lesser known names. It is possible that writings of Thales were available to some of these men. Any records which Thales may have kept would have been an advantage in his own work. This is especially true of mathematics, of the dates and times determined when fixing the solstices, the positions of stars, and in  financial transactions. It is difficult to believe that Thales would not have written down the information he had gathered in his travels, particularly the geometry he investigated in Egypt and his measuring of the height of the pyramid, his hypotheses about nature, and the cause of change. Proclus acknowledged Thales as the discoverer of a number of specific theorems (A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid’s Elements 65. 8-9; 250. 16-17). This suggests that Eudemus, Proclus’s source had before him the written records of Thales’s discoveries. How did Thales ‘prove’ his theorems if not in written words and sketches? The works On the Solstice, On the Equinox, which were attributed to Thales (D.L. I.23), and the ‘Nautical Star guide, to which Simplicius referred, may have been sources for the History of Astronomy of Eudemus (D.L. I.23). Pythagoras (c.570—c.495 BCE) The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Pythagoras must have been one of the world’s greatest persons, but he wrote nothing, and it is hard to say how much of the doctrine we know as Pythagorean is due to the founder of the society and how much is later development. It is also hard to say how much of what we are told about the life of Pythagoras is trustworthy; for a mass of legend gathered around his name at an early date. Sometimes he is represented as a man of science, and sometimes as a preacher of mystic doctrines, and we might be tempted to regard one or other of those characters as alone historical. The truth is that there is no need to reject either of the traditional views. The union of mathematical genius and mysticism is common enough. Originally from Samos, Pythagoras founded at Kroton (in southern Italy) a society which was at once a religious community and a scientific school. Such a body was bound to excite jealousy and mistrust, and we hear of many struggles. Pythagoras himself had to flee from Kroton to Metapontion, where he died. It is stated that he was a disciple of Anaximander, his astronomy was the natural development of Anaximander’s. Also, the way in which the Pythagorean geometry developed also bears witness to its descent from that of Miletos. The great problem at this date was the duplication of the square, a problem which gave rise to the theorem of the square on the hypotenuse, commonly  known still as the Pythagorean proposition (Euclid, I. 47). If we were right in assuming that Thales worked with the old 3:4:5 triangle, the connection is obvious. Pythagoras argued that there are three kinds of men, just as there are three classes of strangers who come to the Olympic Games. The lowest consists of those who come to buy and sell, and next above them are those who come to compete. Best of all are those who simply come to look on. Men may be classified accordingly as lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, and lovers of gain. That seems to imply the doctrine of the tripartite soul, which is also attributed to the early Pythagoreans on good authority, though it is common now to ascribe it to Plato. There are, however, clear references to it before his time, and it agrees much better with the general outlook of the Pythagoreans. The comparison of human life to a gathering like the Games was often repeated in later days. Pythagoras also taught the doctrine of Rebirth or transmigration, which we may have learned from the contemporary Orphics. Xenophanes made fun of him for pretending to recognize the voice of a departed friend in the howls of a beaten dog. Empedocles seems to be referring to him when he speaks of a man who could remember what happened ten or twenty generations before. It was on this that the doctrine of Recollection, which plays so great a part in Plato, was based. The things we perceive with the senses, Plato argues, remind us of things we knew when the soul was out of the body and could perceive reality directly. There is more difficulty about the cosmology of Pythagoras. Hardly any school ever professed such reverence for its founder’s authority as the Pythagoreans. ‘The Master said so’ was their watchword. On the other hand, few schools have shown so much capacity for progress and for adapting themselves to new conditions. Pythagoras started from the cosmical system of Anaximenes. Aristotle tells us that the Pythagoreans represented the world as inhaling ‘air’ form the boundless mass outside it, and this ‘air’ is identified with ‘the unlimited’. When, however, we come to the process by which things are developed out of the ‘unlimited’, we observe a great change. We hear nothing more of ‘separating out’ or even of rarefaction and condensation. Instead of that we have the theory that what gives form to the  Unlimited is the Limit. That is the great contribution of Pythagoras to philosophy, and we must try to understand it. Now the function of the Limit is usually illustrated from the arts of music and medicine, and we have seen how important these two arts were for Pythagoreans, so it is natural to infer that the key to its meaning is to be found in them. It may be taken as certain that Pythagoras himself discovered the numerical ratios which determine the concordant intervals of the musical scale. Similar to musical intervals, in medicine there are opposites, such as the hot and the cold, the wet and the dry, and it is the business of the physician to produce a proper ‘blend’ of these in the human body. In a well-known passage of Plato’s Phaedo (86 b) we are told by Simmias that the Pythagoreans held the body to be strung like an instrument to a certain pitch, hot and cold, wet and dry taking the place of high and low in music. Musical tuning and health are alike means arising from the application of Limit to the Unlimited. It was natural for Pythagoras to look for something of the same kind in the world at large. Briefly stated, the doctrine of Pythagoras was that all things are numbers. In certain fundamental cases, the early Pythagoreans represented numbers and explained their properties by means of dots arrang ed in certain ‘figures’ or patterns. Zeno’s Paradoxes In the fifth century B.C.E., Zeno of Elea offered arguments that led to conclusions contradicting what we all know from our physical experience–that runners run, that arrows fly, and that there are many different things in the world. The arguments were paradoxes for the ancient Greek philosophers. Because most of the arguments turn crucially on the notion that space and time are infinitely divisible—for example, that for any distance there is such a thing as half that distance, and so on—Zeno was the first person in history to show that the concept of infinity is problematical. In his Achilles Paradox, Achilles races to catch a slower runner–for example, a tortoise that is crawling away from him. The tortoise has a head start, so if Achilles hopes to overtake it, he must run at least to the place where the tortoise presently is, but by the time he arrives there, it will have crawled to a new place, so then Achilles must run to this new place, but the  tortoise meanwhile will have crawled on, and so forth. Achilles will never catch the tortoise, says Zeno. Therefore, good reasoning shows that fast runners never can catch slow ones. So much the worse for the claim that motion really occurs, Zeno says in defense of his mentor Parmenides who had argued that motion is an illusion. Although practically no scholars today would agree with Zeno’s conclusion, we can not escape the paradox by jumping up from our seat and chasing down a tortoise, nor by saying Achilles should run to some other target place ahead of where the tortoise is at the moment. What is required is an analysis of Zeno’s own argument that does not get us embroiled in new paradoxes nor impoverish our mathematics and science. This article explains his ten known paradoxes and considers the treatments that have been offered. Zeno assumed distances and durations can be divided into an actual infinity (what we now call a transfinite infinity) of indivisible parts, and he assumed these are too many for the runner to complete. Aristotle‘s treatment said Zeno should have assumed there are only potential infinities, and that neither places nor times divide into indivisible parts. His treatment became the generally accepted solution until the late 19th century. The current standard treatment says Zeno was right to conclude that a runner’s path contains an actual infinity of parts, but he was mistaken to assume this is too many. This treatment employs the apparatus of calculus which has proved its indispensability for the development of modern science. In the twentieth century it finally became clear that disallowing actual infinities, as Aristotle wanted, hampers the growth of set theory and ultimately of mathematics and physics. This standard treatment took hundreds of years to perfect and was due to the flexibility of intellectuals who were willing to replace old theories and their concepts with more fruitful ones, despite the damage done to common sense and our naive intuitions. The article ends by exploring newer treatments of the paradoxes—and related paradoxes such as Thomson’s Lamp Paradox—that were developed since the 1950s. Parmenides (b. 510 BCE) Parmenides was a Greek philosopher and poet, born of an illustrious family about BCE. 510, at Elea in Lower Italy, and is is the chief representative of the Eleatic philosophy. He was held in high esteem by his fellow-citizens for his excellent legislation, to which they ascribed the prosperity and wealth of the town. He was also admired for his exemplary life. A â€Å"Parmenidean life† was proverbial among the Greeks. He is commonly represented as a disciple of Xenophanes. Parmenides wrote after Heraclitus, and in conscious opposition to him, given the evident allusion to Hericlitus: â€Å"for whom it is and is not, the same and not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions† (fr. 6, 8). Little more is known of his biography than that he stopped at Athens on a journey in his sixty-fifth year, and there became acquainted with the youthful Socrates. That must have been in the middle of the fifth century BCE., or shortly after it. Parmenides broke with the older Ionic prose tradition by writing in hexameter verse. His didactic poem, called On Nature, survives in fragments, although the Proem (or introductory discourse) of the work has been preserved. Parmenides was a young man when he wrote it, for the goddess who reveals the truth to him addresses him as â€Å"youth.† The work is considered inartistic. Its Hesiodic style was appropriate for the cosmogony he describes in the second part, but is unsuited to the arid dialectic of the first. Parmenides was no born poet, and we must ask what led him to take this new departure. The example of Xenophanes’ poetic writings is not a complete explanation; for the poetry of Parmenides is as unlike that of Xenophanes as it well can be, and his style is more like Hesiod and the Orphics. In the Proem Parmenides describes his ascent to the home of the goddess who is supposed to speak the remainder of the verses; this is a reflexion of the conventional ascents i nto heaven which were almost as common as descents into hell in the apocalyptic literature of those days. The Proem opens with Parmenides representing himself as borne on a chariot and attended by the Sunmaidens who have quitted the Halls of Night to guide him on his journey. They pass along the highway till they come to the Gate of Night and Day, which is locked and barred. The key is in the keeping of Dike (Right), the Avenger, who is persuaded to unlock it by the Sunmaidens.  They pass in through the gate and are now, of course, in the realms of Day. The goal of the journey is the palace of a goddess who welcomes Parmenides and instructs him in the two ways, that of Truth and the deceptive way of Belief, in which is no truth at all. All this is described without inspiration and in a purely conventional manner, so it must be interpreted by the canons of the apocalyptic style. It is clearly meant to indicate that Parmenides had been converted, that he had passed from error (night) to truth (day), and the Two Ways must represent his former error and the truth which is now revealed to h im. There is reason to believe that the Way of Belief is an account of Pythagorean cosmology. In any case, it is surely impossible to regard it as anything else than a description of some error. The goddess says so in words that cannot be explained away. Further, this erroneous belief is not the ordinary man’s view of the world, but an elaborate system, which seems to be a natural development the Ionian cosmology on certain lines, and there is no other system but the Pythagorean that fulfils this requirement. To this it has been objected that Parmenides would not have taken the trouble to expound in detail a system he had altogether rejected, but that is to mistake the character of the apocalyptic convention. It is not Parmenides, but the goddess, that expounds the system, and it is for this reason that the beliefs described are said to be those of ‘mortals’. Now a description of the ascent of the soul would be quite incomplete without a picture of the region from which it had escaped. The goddess must reveal the two ways at the parting of which Parmenides stands, and bid him choose the better. The rise of mathematics in the Pythagorean school had revealed for the first time the power of thought. To the mathematician of all men it is the same thing that can be thought and that can be, and this is the principle from which Parmenides starts. It is impossible to think what is not, and it is impossible for what cannot be thought to be. The great question, Is it or is it not? is therefore equivalent to the question, Can it be thought or not? In any case, the work thus has two divisions. The first discusses the truth, and the second the world of illusion — that is, the world of the senses and the erroneous opinions of mankind founded upon them. In his opinion truth  lies in the perception that existence is, and error in the idea that non-existence also can be. Nothing can have real existence but what is conceivable; therefore to be imagined and to be able to exist are the same thing, and there is no development. The essence of what is conceivable is incapable of development, imperishable, immutable, unbounded, and indivisible. What is various and mutable, all development, is a delusive phantom. Perception is thought directed to the pure essence of being; the phenomenal world is a delusion, and the opinions formed concerning it can only be improbable. Parmenides goes on to consider in the light of this principle the consequences of saying that anything is. In the first place, it cannot have come into being. If it had, it must have arisen from nothing or from something. It cannot have arisen from nothing; for there is no nothing. It cannot have arisen from something; for here is nothing else than what is. Nor can anything else besides itself come into being; for there can be no empty space in which it could do so. Is it or is it not? If it is, then it is now, all at once. In this way Parmenides refutes all accounts of the origin of the world. Ex nihilo nihil fit. Further, if it is, it simply is, and it cannot be more or less. There is, therefore, as much of it in one place as in another. (That makes rarefaction and condensation impossible.) it is continuous and indivisible; for there is nothing but itself which could prevent its parts being in contact with one another. It is therefore full, a continuous indivisible plenum. (That is directed against the Pythagorean theory of a discontinuous reality.) Further, it is immovable. If it moved, it must move into empty space, and empty space is nothing, and there is no nothing. Also it is finite and spherical; for it cannot be in one direction any more than in another, and the sphere is the only figure of which this can be said. What is, therefore a finite, spherical, motionless, continuous plenum, and there is nothing beyond it. Coming into being and ceasing to be are mere ‘names’, and so is motion, and still more color and the like. They are not even thoughts; for a thought must be a thought of something that is, and none of these can be. Such is the conclusion to which the view of the real as a single body inevitably leads, and there is no escape from it. The ‘matter’ of our physical text-books is just the real of Parmenides; and, unless we can find room for something else than matter, we are shut up into his account of reality. No subsequent system could afford to ignore this, but of course it was impossible to acquiesce permanently in a doctrine like that of Parmenides. It deprives the world we know of all claim to existence, and reduces it to something which is hardly even an illusion. If we are to give an intelligible account of the world, we must certainly introduce motion again somehow. That can never be taken for granted any more, as it was by the early cosmologists; we must attempt to explain it if we are to escape from the conclusions of Parmenides. Heraclitus (fl. c.500 BCE) A Greek philosopher of the late 6th century BCE, Heraclitus criticizes his predecessors and contemporaries for their failure to see the unity in experience. He claims to announce an everlasting Word (Logos) according to which all things are one, in some sense. Opposites are necessary for life, but they are unified in a system of balanced exchanges. The world itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements, symbolized by fire. Thus the world is not to be identified with any particular substance, but rather with an ongoing process governed by a law of change. The underlying law of nature also manifests itself as a moral law for human beings. Heraclitus is the first Western philosopher to go beyond physical theory in search of metaphysical foundations and moral applications. Anaxagoras (c.500—428 BCE) Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was an important Presocratic natural philosopher and scientist who lived and taught in Athens for approximately thirty years. He gained notoriety for his materialistic views, particularly his contention that the sun was a fiery rock. This led to charges of impiety, and he was sentenced to death by the Athenian court. He avoided this penalty by leaving Athens, and he spent his remaining years in exile. While Anaxagoras proposed theories on a variety of subjects, he is most noted for two theories. First, he speculated that in the physical world everything contains a portion of everything else. His observation of how nutrition works in animals led him to conclude that in order for the food an animal eats to turn into bone,  hair, flesh, and so forth, it must already contain all of those constituents within it. The second theory of significance is Anaxagoras’ postulation of Mind (Nous) as the initiating and governing principle of the cosmos. Democritus ( 460—370 BCE) Democritus was born at Abdera, about 460 BCE, although according to some 490. His father was from a noble family and of great wealth, and contributed largely towards the entertainment of the army of Xerxes on his return to Asia. As a reward for this service the Persian monarch gave and other Abderites presents and left among them several Magi. Democritus, according to Diogenes Laertius, was instructed by these Magi in astronomy and theology. After the death of his father he traveled in search of wisdom, and devoted his inheritance to this purpose, amounting to one hundred talents. He is said to have visited Egypt, Ethiopia, Persia, and India. Whether, in the course of his travels, he visited Athens or studied under Anaxagoras is uncertain. During some part of his life he was instructed in Pythagoreanism, and was a disciple of Leucippus. After several years of traveling, Democritus returned to Abdera, with no means of subsistence. His brother Damosis, however, took him in. According to the law of Abdera, whoever wasted his patrimony would be deprived of the rites of burial. Democritus, hoping to avoid this disgrace, gave public lectures. Petronius relates that he was acquainted with the virtues of herbs, plants, and stones, and that he spent his life in making experiments upon natural bodies. He acquired fame with his knowledge of natural phenomena, and predicted changes in the weather. He used this ability to make people believe that he could predict future events. They not only viewed him as something more than mortal, but even proposed to put him in control of their public affairs. He preferred a contemplative to an active life, and therefore declined these public honors and passed the remainder of his days in solitude. Credit cannot be given to the tale that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosopher’s stone — the dream of a later age; or to the story of his conversation with Hippocrates concerning Democritus’s supposed madness, as based on spurious letters. Democritus has been commonly known as â€Å"The Laughing Philosopher,† and it is gravely related  by Seneca that he never appeared in public with out expressing his contempt of human follies while laughing. Accordingly, we find that among his fellow-citizens he had the name of â€Å"the mocker†. He died at more than a hundred years of age. It is said that from then on he spent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchers, and that, in order to master his intellectual faculties, he blinded himself with burning glass. This story, however, is discredited by the writers who mention it insofar as they say he wrote books and dissected animals, neither of which could be done we ll without eyes. Democritus expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. He maintained the impossibility of dividing things ad infinitum. From the difficulty of assigning a beginning of time, he argued the eternity of existing nature, of void space, and of motion. He supposed the atoms, which are originally similar, to be impenetrable and have a density proportionate to their volume. All motions are the result of active and passive affection. He drew a distinction between primary motion and its secondary effects, that is, impulse and reaction. This is the basis of the law of necessity, by which all things in nature are ruled. The worlds which we see — with all their properties of immensity, resemblance, and dissimilitude — result from the endless multiplicity of falling atoms. The human soul consists of globular atoms of fire, which impart movement to the body. Maintaining his atomic theory throughout, Democritus introduced the hypothesis of images or idols (eidola), a kind of emanation from external objects, which make an impression on our senses, and from the influence of which he deduced sensation (aesthesis) and thought (noesis). He distinguished between a rude, imperfect, and therefore false perception and a true one. In the same manner, consistent with this theory, he accounted for the popular notions of Deity; partly through our incapacity to understand fully the phenomena of which we are witnesses, and partly from the impressions communicated by certain beings (eidola) of enormous stature and resembling the human figure which inhabit the air. We know these from dreams and the causes of divination. He carried his theory into practical philosophy also, laying down that happiness consisted in an even temperament. From this he deduced his moral principles and prudential maxims. It was from Democritus that  Epicurus borrowed the princi pal features of his philosophy. Empedocles (c.492—432 BCE) Empedocles (of Acagras in Sicily) was a philosopher and poet: one of the most important of the philosophers working before Socrates (the Presocratics), and a poet of outstanding ability and of great influence upon later poets such as Lucretius. His works On Nature and Purifications (whether they are two poems or only one – see below) exist in more than 150 fragments. He has been regarded variously as a materialist physicist, a shamanic magician, a mystical theologian, a healer, a democratic politician, a living god, and a fraud. To him is attributed the invention of the four-element theory of matter (earth, air, fire, and water), one of the earliest theories of particle physics, put forward seemingly to rescue the phenomenal world from the static monism of Parmenides. Empedocles’ world-view is of a cosmic cycle of eternal change, growth and decay, in which two personified cosmic forces, Love and Strife, engage in an eternal battle for supremacy. In psychology and ethics Empedocles was a follower of Pythagoras, hence a believer in the transmigration of souls, and hence also a vegetarian. He claims to be a daimà ´n, a divine or potentially divine being, who, having been banished from the immortals gods for ‘three times countless years’ for committing the sin of meat-eating and forced to suffer successive reincarnations in an purificatory journey through the different orders of nature and elements of the cosmos, has now achieved the most perfect of human states and will be reborn as an immortal. He also claims seemingly magical powers including the ability to revive the dead and to control the winds and rains.

Case Study of Infection Control Mr Jones

Case Study of Infection Control Mr Jones Mr. Jones is a 72 year old Gentleman who was cared for in an acute medical setting, to ensure patients confidentiality is maintained (NMC2009) his name has been changed. Infection control is a fundamental aspect of a nurses role, as well as the responsibility of everyone who works within healthcare systems (Department of Health (DH) 2006a). Infection control and the prevention of all infection remains a major goal within all healthcare settings, and lies with all healthcare professionals and personnels responsibility to ensure this is achieved. The NHS and healthcare systems have specialised infection control teams to ensure an effective infection control programme has been planned and implemented, also regularly evaluate the effectiveness of programmes and update their findings. The infection prevention and control team provides advice about the prevention and management of infection including outbreaks of diarrhoea and vomiting, as well as promoting education and awareness to patients and carers. They work closely with staff and senior members of the healthcare setting to ensure that correct policies and procedures are adhered to. (www.nhs.uk/infection-prevention-and-control/). Healthcare consists of a multi disciplinary team and all professionals must work together in order to encourage the effectiveness of the infection control programme is achieved. Microbiology has become an advanced science in the investigation of infections and the management of their control in the hospital setting, the study of living organisms that are so small that can not be seen by the naked eye, Microbes are everywhere, they are able to survive in almost every conceivable environment(J.Wilson). Many species of bacteria exists as well as virus and other micro organisms, but thanks to advance scientific findings a very small proportion cause disease and infection (J.Wilson). The student nurse acted appropriately and was aware of following the NMC guidelines at all times within the clinical area of placement, and adhering to confidentiality guidelines and ethical policy. The student nurse was called to assist Mr. Jones who had alerted the staff on the ward that he was in need of assistance in the toilet. When entering the room it was obvious to the student nurse that Mr. Jones was distressed. Mr. Jones had been incontinent and defecated on to the floor of the toilet and surrounding area. The student nurse gave reassurance to Mr. Jones to encourage the relief of his anxiety and distress, making the care of people your first concern, treating people kindly and considerately. (NMC2009). According to the Bristol stool chart the stools that Mr. Jones had passed were type 7, the Bristol stool chart shows seven categories of stool and was developed by K.W Heaton and S.J Lewis at the University of Bristol and first published in the Scandinavian journal of Gastroenterology in 1997. Types 5-7 according to the Bristol stool chart may indicate diarrhoea and urgency, with stools passed watery with no solid pieces which presents entirely liquid. The Bristol stool chart is an extremely useful guide as having a reference to adhere to gives the healthcare professional a better understanding and descriptive way of passing on information regarding their patient, a great deal of information can be learnt by the consistency of the patients stool as to indicate if their is any cause to be concerned, Clostridium difficile is an infection which is seen within the healthcare setting such as the hospital or care home, and was first recognised in the late 1970s, it does not present a problem in a healthy person but can present a problem in people who have been taking long term antibiotics, as this can interfere with good bacteria within the gut which can encourage C.difficile bacteria to multiply and produce toxins which causes diarrhoea and vomiting, C.difficile is more common in the over 65 age group, and can be spread through cross contamination from patient contact, via healthcare staff or via contaminated surfaces within the environ ment. (www.nhs.uk/conditions/clostridium-difficile). Healthcare environments are constantly battling against outbreaks of infection with implementing effective control measures which the infection control teams have implemented in guidelines from policy and procedures, in many cases time of outbreaks can not be determined but effective control measures can prevent the spread of infection to other areas, Norovirus which can present huge problems and stress to the healthcare setting can usually be determined to present in the winter months, vomiting and diarrhoea can present any time outside this time frame and procedures will be a duty of care to adhere to, to minimise the risk of the spread of infection. An outbreak within the clinical setting may be defined as two or more cases of the same infection which are linked in time and place and any suspicion of an outbreak must be reported and documented to the relevant departments. (The Health Act 2006). Having identified the risks of potential cross contamination and infection the student nurse intentions were to ensure that the necessary precautions were adhered to. Protective clothing such as gloves and aprons should be worn in accordance with the standard universal precautions policy. Staff can be at risk of infection or transference of pathogens if they do not comply with good infection control practices. Essential skills clusters for nurses. The student nurse prior to assisting Mr. Jones any further made sure adequate protective clothing was worn with putting gloves and apron on. Wearing uniforms or protective personal clothing is affected by current legislation. (Health and Safety at work Act 1974). The student nurse had made the decision not to wear added protective clothing as in this situation her personal judgement did not feel it necessary, face masks and eye protection are not always necessary for most intervention or activity to prevent cross infection, however, when there is a likelihood of accidental splashes from blood, body fluids, secretions and excretions to the face they must be worn. (Arrowsmith 2005, p.81, Pratt et al.2007). The first priority of the nurse is the patient, so that they feel comfortable and less distressed about the situation, Make the care of people your first concern, treat people as individuals and respect their dignity (NMC 2009). It is a general legal and ethical principle that valid consent must be obtained before starting treatment or providing personal care for a patient. Explaining clearly the students intentions to Mr. Jones was important to ensure that Mr. Jones was informed and consented to the student nurse helping with personal care he was to receive, you must ensure that you gain consent before you begin any treatment or care (NMC2008). Mr. Jones mental capacity was at a satisfactory level to have the ability to understand what had just occurred and made the informed personal choice that the student nurse could assist him with resolving the situation that he had found himself in, For consent to be valid, it must be voluntary and informed, and the person consenting must have the capacity to make the decision.( www.nhs.uk/conditions/consenttotreatment). The hygiene needs of Mr. Jones were met, using soap and water and clean underwear and gown was supplied. Hygiene needs are an important fundamental role of the nurse, and the protection of the skin and ensuring the patients skin is left clean and dry. Skin care is critically important, remembering to cleanse and protect the skin, especially if the skin has been exposed to urine or stool, also being aware of damaged skin, which can lead to infection, especially serious among the elderly. As well as infection it is essential to promote the prevention of skin breakdown, again, especially within the elderly. The presence of urine and faeces on the skin increases the normal PH of 4.0 -5.5 and makes the skin wet. The rise of PH and excess moisture increases the risks of tissue breakdown and infection. (Ersser et.al.2005). This also ensured that cross contamination of any possible infection did not pass onto any person on the ward and contamination of the surfaces at Mr. Jones bed space. Ba cteria may multiply rapidly to create a source of infection, provided that a suitable vehicle transfers them to a susceptible site on the patient. (Infection control in clinical practice, J.Wilson). Appropriate handling of infected items is the key to minimise the risk of transmission and cross contamination within the clinical area and responsibility of the student nurse and all other staff within the clinical areas, removal of gloves and aprons after use should be exposed of in the nearest clinical waste bin and soiled linen placed in a red linen bag. Contamination of the environment is a necessary duty of the nurse and the relevant domestic staff on the ward was informed of the area of risk, NHS Infection control precautions policy states, that spillages of faeces and/or vomit must be cleaned up immediately using detergent and water. The area should then be disinfected using a hypochlorite 10,000ppm (Antichlor Plus) solution. Prior to the student nurse escorting Mr. Jones back to his bed space within the ward necessary and crucial hand washing was carried out thoroughly and encouragement for Mr. Jones to carry out the same precautions were implied, by doing so this action dis couraged transmission of pathogens and possible cross contamination. Hand decontamination is a low tech clinical intervention that can prevent transmission of infection (DH2006b). Unclean hands have been shown to be a significant vehicle for the transmission of micro organisms and contribute to outbreaks of infection in healthcare environments. (Pratt et al 2007). A healthcare professionals role and responsibility is to collaborate with those their care at all times and to encourage education and understanding about their individual promotion of health and wellbeing, NMC, Standards of conduct, performance and ethics states that, you must support people in caring for themselves to improve and maintain health, and recognise and respect the contribution that people make to their own care and wellbeing. The student nurse encouraging Mr. Jones to wash his hands and help with his personal care can encourage promoting Mr. Jones independence and mental wellbeing as well as encourage the understanding of the importance of discouraging of cross contamination within the environment. A senior member of the nursing staff was immediately informed regarding the situation with Mr. Jones as the information was important with the care he was currently receiving and relevant to any future care that he was about to receive, as well as the possible risk of infection as type 7 stool poses to the environment. The need to respect peoples confidentiality is a duty of care to the patient so it would be necessary to ensure the patient was informed that any information passed on was in their best interest, NMC 2010 states, you must ensure people are informed about how and why information is shared by those who will be providing their care and you must disclose information if you believe someone may be at risk of harm, in line with the law of the country in which you are practising.

Assassins Creed in Popular Video Game Culture Essay -- Globalist Agend

Video games have risen in popularity in America the past couple decades where popular gaming franchises influence or reflect modern American culture. Many video game franchises are popular but one franchise that has stood out in video game media is Assassin's Creed. Assassin's Creed is a franchise that consists of video games, spinoffs, comics, graphic novels, animated films, figurines, weapon replicas, clothing, and other merchandise. Only focusing on the video game branch of the franchise, the series began in 2007 with its first installment released. The franchise was planned out as a spin-off for the Prince of Persia series but developed into their own franchise. Currently there are seven main games in the franchise all of which have historical fiction, action-adventure, and stealth genres. The games feature dense narratives, historical buildings with the ability to climb freely on them, and the iconic hidden blade. Since the first game, roughly around 57 million copies of the fr anchise were sold world wide (â€Å"About Ubisoft†). Compared to other popular franchises such as Grant Theft Auto, that sold 150 million, and Halo, that sold 50 million, Assassin's Creed franchise has its fair share of popularity. Not focusing on only statistics, go to any video game convention and you would most likely see people dressed up as assassins or see merchandise of the franchise. So in video game culture now Assassin's Creed seems fairly popular. Considering how popular Assassin's Creed is in America, the game has aspects that reflect common ideas, morals, and traits that are present in American culture as well as other popular American media. The most obvious trend Assassin's Creed has is the violent aspects in the game. Assassin’s Creed is ... ... America, 10 Sep. 2009. Web. 28 Nov. 2013. An article by Michael Shermer explaining a reason why Americans might believe in conspiracies. I will use this source to describe the conspiracy trends in American media. It relates to the trend in Assassin's Creed with the concept of Assassins vs Templars and all the conspiracy theories in the historical parts of the game and partly in the modern aspect. This will help me come up with a theory on why people might like this trend and synthesize what it says about our culture. â€Å"Top 100 Most Popular Games.† G4TV. NBCUniversal. 2013. Web. 28 Nov. 2013. A brief list of the top hundred popular games that sold in 2012. This the list is valid because other sources, such as GameRadar and IGN, have similar lists with the same games. I am simply using this source to point out the amount of violent games that are popular.

Is Mill a Rule Utilitarian? Essay -- essays research papers

D. Vinson Is Mill A Rule Utilitarian?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I don’t believe so. I must begin my argument with two definitions and one assumption. First, Rule Utilitarianism states that right action is defined by whether or not a given action is an instance of a moral rule that tends to maximize utility. Second, Act Utilitarianism states that right action is defined by whether or not a given action maximizes utility. Finally, the Utilitarian Principle holds that right actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. I hope that my assumption will be granted as it is taken verbatim from the text. With these notions as a starting point I believe that I can now show Mill to be an act-utilitarian.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The case for Mill being a rule-utilitarian is a strong one. Mill certainly relies heavily on rules in his treatise and argues that they are useful to the point of necessity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To consider the rules of morality as improvable is one thing;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  to pass over the intermediate generalizations entirely, and to   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  endeavor to test each individual action directly by the first   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  principle is another.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Further on in the text, Mill even seems to minimize the importance of the first principle by declaring that it is only useful for settling disputes ove...

Jazz Concert Report

Before taking Jazz class I barely knew anything about this type music. Six different bands performed fifteen pieces. Most of the pieces are written by popular Jazz composers, such as â€Å"Cantaloupe Island† by Herbie Hancock or â€Å"Donna Lee† by Charlie Parker. Also, there was one band that performed pieces written by its members, which really impressed me. For example, â€Å"Preparation† was composed by Alex Reiff, who plays bass in the band called Krista White 3 PM Combo. In this report I would like to pay attention on two pieces that I enjoyed the most.The first piece is â€Å"A Phone Call with Janet† written by Jessie Crossen, trombonist in the band Krista White 3 PM Combo. One of the band’s members said that Janet happens to be Aaron Smith’s trumpeter’s mother. What was noticeable is that the composition starts with bass playing. The dynamics are very quiet in the beginning, as if somebody was starting a conversation on the pho ne really quietly. When trombonist starts improvising, the rhythm starts to get faster and dynamics get louder and louder. I associated faster rhythm and loud dynamics with a phone argument between two people.The pianist was improvising last. Here dynamics got softer and quieter, and rhythm gets slower, which makes it seem that the argument was resolved. In the conclusion, all instruments end the composition. The second piece I wanted to pay attention to is â€Å"Take the A Train† that was originally composed by Billy Strayhorn. At the Sac State Jazz Combos Concert it was performed by Oliver Graham Combo band. It so happened that 2 days before this concert I read about Billy Strayhorn in my Music class and it was very interesting to listen how these guys would perform it. The composition starts with all instruments playing.Then pianist improvised first. After pianist, alto took turn to improvise. One could notice a very interesting and a little bit unusual exchange between gu itarist and drummer. The form of â€Å"Take the A Train† composition is 32-bar. The rhythm gets faster toward the middle of the song and dynamics are moderate throughout the composition. Overall, the concert was really great opportunity to experience a new style of music. I never thought Jazz could be the type of music I could listen to. This concert was the first Jazz concert I went to and I am looking forward to attend more in a future. Jazz Concert Report Before taking Jazz class I barely knew anything about this type music. Six different bands performed fifteen pieces. Most of the pieces are written by popular Jazz composers, such as â€Å"Cantaloupe Island† by Herbie Hancock or â€Å"Donna Lee† by Charlie Parker. Also, there was one band that performed pieces written by its members, which really impressed me. For example, â€Å"Preparation† was composed by Alex Reiff, who plays bass in the band called Krista White 3 PM Combo. In this report I would like to pay attention on two pieces that I enjoyed the most.The first piece is â€Å"A Phone Call with Janet† written by Jessie Crossen, trombonist in the band Krista White 3 PM Combo. One of the band’s members said that Janet happens to be Aaron Smith’s trumpeter’s mother. What was noticeable is that the composition starts with bass playing. The dynamics are very quiet in the beginning, as if somebody was starting a conversation on the pho ne really quietly.When trombonist starts improvising, the rhythm starts to get faster and dynamics get louder and louder. I associated faster rhythm and loud dynamics with a phone argument between two people. The pianist was improvising last. Here dynamics got softer and quieter, and rhythm gets slower, which makes it seem that the argument was resolved. In the conclusion, all instruments end the composition.The second piece I wanted to pay attention to is â€Å"Take the A Train† that was originally composed by Billy Strayhorn. At the Sac State Jazz Combos Concert it was performed by Oliver Graham Combo band. It so happened that 2 days before this concert I read about Billy Strayhorn in my Music class and it was very interesting to listen how these guys would perform it. The composition starts with all instruments playing.Then pianist improvised first. After pianist, alto took turn to improvise. One could notice a very interesting and a little bit unusual exchange between gui tarist and drummer. The form of â€Å"Take the A Train† composition is 32-bar. The rhythm gets faster  toward the middle of the song and dynamics are moderate throughout the composition.Overall, the concert was really great opportunity to experience a new style of music. I never thought Jazz could be the type of music I could listen to. This concert was the first Jazz concert I went to and I am looking forward to attend more in a future.

Book Exam Narrative Frederick Douglass

Instructions: This exam consists of twenty-six questions worth one point and eight questions worth three points. Students should type all answers. The link to the entire PDF of this reading is available on Blackboard. Students found to be engaged in collusion or plagiarizing the work of another student will receive a zero. Please spell-check your work and type all answers appropriately, i.e. in complete sentences where possible. The following questions are worth one point: 1. In the preface a figure, described as being â€Å"a little lower than the angels† attended the Anti-Slavery convention in Nantucket; who was this figure? 2. What do you think was meant by the statement â€Å"I am glad the time has come when the ‘lions write history’?† 3. What does Douglass mean when he suggests plantation owners quickly sell mulatto slaves as a measure to preserve humanity? 4. What actions might earn a plantation owner the title of â€Å"kind master†? 5. Why are slaves allowed to partake in holiday activity at the end of each year? 6. Publically the plantation owner justified the whipping of Douglass’ aunt by arguing what? 7. How is tar used to maintain plantation rule? 8. Plantation visitors often leave the plantation with only good things to say about the plantation experience. Why are some visitors poorly informed about the slave experience on the plantation?9. Who is George Cookman? 10. What ‘protection’ did Douglass’ provide those who travelled North with him? 11. Douglass received a whipping nearly every week for what offense? 12. Based on your reading of the preface, how do those attending the conference in Nantucket view Douglass? 13. How does William Garrison describe the institution of slavery? 14. What myth does Douglass hope to dispel in his discussion of slave songs? 15. Why does Douglass suggest slaves measure the kindness of a master â€Å"by the standard of kindness set up among slaveholders† in the surrounding region? 16. What is Douglass’ role under Master Auld? 17. What problem did literacy pose for Douglass? 18. Why was Douglass’ apprehensive about the Irishmen he met on the wharf? 19. Why does Douglass believe Auld is a poor master? 20. Using Douglass’ memories, why are slaves manumitted? 21. At what point did Douglass decide he was no longer a slave in spirit? Explain. 22. What was the purpose of the root? 23. Douglass claims that his desire for freedom is highest when?24. What affect did receiving a portion of his earnings have on Douglass? 25. Which slave master appears to be familiar with Adam Smith’s work? 26. Why was Douglass overcome with loneliness upon reaching a free state? The following questions are worth three points: 27. Describe the experience of slave children. Be sure to cite the appropriate pages. 28. Based on Douglass’ experience, would you argue relationships between slaves are important? Why or why not? Include page references. 29. Is there evidence of the Grimke sisters’ argument in Douglass’ work? Elaborate. 30. How does Douglass interpret the impact of religion among slaveholders? Reference the reading. 31. Do slaves have rights? Defend your position with support from the reading. 32. What elements offered Douglass’ insight to freedom? Elaborate. 33. Does the reading offer evidence to support George Fitzhugh’s argument? 34. How are Master Thomas and Master Hugh different in their approach to slavery?

Broken Promises

Broken Promises, Reparations there is a renewed willingness on the part of both governments and corporations to provide compensation for injustices in other contexts. Often it has taken the form of cash payments or other benefits to victims of Nazi and Japanese atrocities during World War II. Some have sought to return land to native peoples, while others have simply offered apologies. Apologies have been offered for a wide range of past injustices done to Jews, Korean women, Native Americans, and South African blacks. The U. S. government apologized for its role in overthrowing the native government in Hawaii and the elected government in Guatemala. † (Arthur, 2007) In appearing to act in the interest of former slaves government raised reparations as a subject and passed laws directing compensatory payment after the Civil War. Former slaves needed footing to function on an economic and social level in this nation. Laws stipulating compensation be disbursed in the form of lives tock, monies, lands etc. were passed. In 1865, the original reparations package, the so-called â€Å"40 Acres and a Mule,† was issued.Each black family was supposed to receive 40 acres and later was offered the loan of Army mules. The same year, Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau, which was created to oversee the transition of slaves to freedom. The goal of the Freedmen's Bureau was to distribute 850,000 abandoned and confiscated acres of land to former slaves. But the distribution never happened. Former Confederates were allowed to reclaim the property. † http://www. alternet. org/story/11000 Broken Promises, Reparations 3 At its root reparations was an idea government pretended to embrace.This appears to be evident in taking the axiom â€Å"Actions speak louder than words† into account. The legal mandates for reparations that were voluntarily passed by government were not empowered to transform the law from writing to realities the former slaves would e xperience. 136 years having passed without a blade of grass, a single dollar, mule or apology does not reckon favorably in African American’s minds, especially when government is noted to have apologized to other ethnic groups and disbursed funds and resources as a part of those apologies.â€Å"Under the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, the U. S. government apologized for Japanese American internment during World War II and provided reparations of $20,000 to each survivor, to compensate for loss of property and liberty during that period. For many years, Native American tribes have received compensation for lands ceded to the United States by them in various treaties. Other countries have also opted to pay reparations for past grievances, (see Holocaust reparations)†,(http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery).Anti-reparation activists decry the idea that African Americans living today should receive compensation for experiences they did not endure. Descendants of slave owners who had nothing to do with slavery should be exempt from any responsibility for debts incurred by their ancestors is another anti-reparation argument. While there may be merit to the idea that public policy should not function like a curse a legal basis for the call for Broken Promises, Reparations 4 reparations were passed.The failure to perform to meet the purpose of the law for 136 years does not nullify the nation’s duty to meet the duties it has already legislated. is was objectively The problem is there were laws passed that would have settled the call for reparations a century later if they’d been enforced. The idea of a mass of property and money going to African Americans is exacerbated by the fact that African Americans weren’t the only ethnic group that’s been discriminated against in America.Blacks were the only group enslaved under the authorities of legislation. When bringing the holocaust associated with slave trading to mind African Americans justification for compensation are all the more strengthened by the weight of conscience. The number of slaves lost in transporting, some to mass killings draws spiritual and legal issues into the debate. The killings of slaves to appease economic concerns of slave traders is an embarrassment to arguments seeking to deny reparations. â€Å"Heading for Jamaica in 1781, the ship Zong was nearing the end of its voyage.It had been twelve weeks since it had sailed from the west African coast with its cargo of 417 slaves. Water was running out. Then, compounding the problem, there was an outbreak of disease. The ship's captain, reasoning that the slaves were going to die anyway, made a decision. In order to reduce the owner's losses he would throw overboard the slaves thought to be too sick to recover. The voyage was insured, but the insurance would not pay for sick slaves or even those killed by illness. However, it would cover slaves lost Broken Promises, Reparations 5 through drowning.The captain gave the order; 54 Africans were chained together, then thrown overboard. Another 78 were drowned over the next two days. By the time the ship had reached the Caribbean,132 persons had been murdered. (http://www. alternet. org/story/11000/) The abolition of slavery, laws authorizing reparations that were not enforced, mass murders of large numbers of slaves and the government’s perpetuating injustice against Blacks through legalized segregation and discrimination expand the scope of what was originally â€Å"purposed† to address those who were directly affected by slavery.The government’s failing to enforce reparation laws it instituted over 100 years ago gives African Americans pause to reason the nation must be forced to meet its obligation. The lack of a single conciliatory act, including a lack of an apology has direct bearing on African American’s being reconciled to Ameri ca. The arguments for and against reparations may impress some as having equal weight along moral, ethical and legal lines. As time has passed benign neglect of what reparation laws has given place to arguments anti-reparation activists use in their efforts to frustrate the campaign.The claim that the current generation of African Americans should not be compensated for what they did not suffer was made possible by the government’s purposefully ignoring its own legislation for over a century. This is an enhancement of moral grounds to campaign for reparations today. Having made accommodations for Japanese internees, funding billions to ameliorate injustice for others Broken Promises, Reparations 6 in foreign lands, etc. magnifies the call for government to fulfill obligations imposed by laws stipulating reparations.Randall Robinson has joined the fray with his book, â€Å"The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks† (Dutton, 200) Robinson writes: â€Å"No race, no ethnic or religious group, has suffered so much over so long a span as blacks have, and do still, at the hands of those who benefitted, with the connivance of the United States government, from slavery and the century of legalized American racial hostility that followed it. It is a miracle that the victims — weary dark souls long shorn of a venerable and ancient identity — have survived at all, stymied as they are by this blocked road to economic equality. † http://www. alternet. org/story/11000/†.The blocked road for African American reparation is the ever growing cacophony of reasons why there is no plausible means to reason from whence the compensation should be drawn. There is a web of issues too complex to hope to resolve in this argument. â€Å"One additional problem is that the governments in power in the 1600s and 1700s in Europe are not still in power now. †¦.. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to hold the current French government liable for the enslavement of Africans that previous governments encouraged and benefited from between the 1600s up to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. † http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery†.The point counterpoint of the argument is gnarly and complex complicating the call for reparations. â€Å"One additional problem is that the governments in power in the 1600s and 1700s in Europe are not still in power now. †¦.. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to hold the current French government liable for the enslavement of Africans that previous governments encouraged and benefited from between the 1600s up to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. † http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery†.The point counterpoint of the argument is gnarly and complex complicating the call for reparations. Broken Promises, Reparations 1 Broken Promises, Reparations For African Americans Customer’s name Course name Professor’s Name Date Broken Promises, Reparations 7REFERENCEShttp://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slaveryhttp://www. alternet. org/story/11000/ Arthur John (2007) Race, Equality, and the Burdens of History, State University of New York, Binghamton

Gender segregated schools Essay

The Benefits and Disadvantages of Single-Sex Education Schools in early 17th century America were fist modeled after English learning institutions after Puritans immigrated over to the English colonies. Originally only rich white males were allowed to attend school to learn how to read and write. In many cases, most parents placed their boys into the nine month long curriculum to keep them out of mischief. For the other three months of the year, students would be released from school during the summer months to lend a hand on their familys arms to help cultivate the land and raise animals. During the summer months, wealthy white girls attended these same schools often taught by a female instructor to learn to read and write. Of the girls who could attend the schools, many were kept at home to be taught the essentials for their future such as cooking, sewing, and the caretaking of babies and toddlers (A Short History). Fast forward one hundred years and the first coeducational schools can be found appearing in the American colonies, primarily the New England area. In these schools the major focus was to teach children how to read, specifically for religious purposes. The likely cause of the integration of boys and girls in schools is thought to be stemmed from â€Å"growing numbers of female church numbers and the practical requirements of finding enough children to support schools in sparsely populated regions† making schools more practical to spread religion (A Short History). After the revolutionary war, American citizens saw that women’s education was important and was needed to promote good citizens and great leaders in society. With this state of mind, many private schools opened their doors to coeducation and allowed both boys and girls to attend school together. Until the late 1840’s, only rich white boys and girls were allowed to attend schools because there was no government funded schools. That changed when reformers Horance Mann and Henry Barnard succeeded with their efforts to promote a free public school system. This finally allowed all white children to attend schools together for free. The only exception to gender-integrated schools where catholic families who â€Å"objected the practice of coeducation on moral and religious grounds†¦ and that males and females had profoundly different purposes to fulfill† (A Short History). Because of this many catholic schools remained segregated y gender. In the early 1900’s many schools created classes specifically to prepare boys and girls for their future. Girls were taught â€Å"home economics and traditionally feminine labor skills, such as secretarial work and or garment-making† while boys were educated in industrial arts, bookkeeping, and commercial geography (A Short History). These classes were introduced for the importance of the growing labor market of the time period. In todays society, some parents are faced with placing their children in gender- segregated schools or in public schools to better benefit their children. The problem brains of the two genders learn different subjects at different ages. So, with this, boys or girls have an advantage over each other. The same happens when puberty becomes a factor in adolescence as well as in high school with distractions. On the other side, there are also benefits to public schools such as socialization with the opposite sex and better preparation for the real world. Then there are gender segregated schools that better accommodate teaching methods and times for specific sexes as well as better grades, less competition, and fewer distractions. Again there re bad sides to this too, such as less socializing and less competition to prepare someone for their future Job. With all of these factors, any parent faced with a decision like this will have a hard time figuring out what type of education their child should receive. One of the major arguments people make supporting gender-segregated schools is the fact that boys and girl’s brains differ in many different aspects. Whether it is an emotional difference or the structure of the brain, one gender will do better in class than the other. In 2007, a team of neuroscientists from the National Institute of Mental Health conducted a study on subjects ranging in age from three to twenty- seven years old both male and female. Their results showed that the occipital lobe of the brain where visual processing is mostly associated with is developed much more rapidly in six to ten year old girls, as opposed to the male brain where this lobe does the majority of its development after fourteen years of age (Novotney). Another major brain difference between the girls and boys is that a girl’s corpus callosum is twenty- five percent larger than a boys, making girls better at multitasking. A girl’s prefrontal ortex also develops earlier and larger than that of a boy, making girls better at abstract thinking and thought analysis as well as making better choices between right and wrong (McBride). Meanwhile, the cerebral cortex where mechanical and spatial thinking is conducted is used much more in boys. This results in boys having an easier time learning with movement and pictures as opposed to girls. With these different developed sections of the brain, girls gain an upper hand in classrooms over boys by ways of better listening, sensory memory, and especially reading and writing. However, boys gain an upper hand over girls in math as Leonard Sax a Ph. D. in psychology and author of Why Gender Matters explains: [the] fact that many middle-school boys seem to learn algebra better when you start with numbers, whereas many same-age girls seem to be more engaged if you start with a word problem. For example, if you are teaching equations in multiple variables, the typical 7th-grade boy will do better if you begin by asking â€Å"If x + 2y = 60, and 2x + y = 90, how do we solve for x and y? † But the typical 7th-grade girl will be more engaged if you begin by asking â€Å"If a sweater and two blouses cost $60, and two sweaters and a louse cost $90, how much does each blouse and each sweater cost? (Sax 15). By splitting boys and girls in school, a teacher can adjust a test to where the two genders of students both benefit from word or equation only math problems. According to Lisa Damour, Co-director of the Center for Research on Girls at Laurel school, a girls day school claims that â€Å"the benefit of single-sex schools†¦ is that they offer the dynamic of having only one sex in the classroom at a time, creating girls class that would not work as effectively in a boys class and vice versa (Novotney). That way boys and girls are taught the same subject at different times in a better gender specified manner. Many studies have statistically shown support towards gender-segregated schools as being better for students in both education and even personality. A study was conducted by researchers from the University of Pennsylvania studying schools in Seoul South Korea that randomly assigned students to either attend a coed or gender-segregated school. In these schools, all students were from different socioeconomic backgrounds. The results of this study found that girls in gender- egregated schools were more likely to attend college after graduation as compared to girls at coeducational schools; the same appeared in boys of both types of schools. Both boys and girls in these gender-segregated schools made higher test scores than coed schools in the same city. In another study conducted by Betta Hannover and her colleague Ursula Kessels found that American girls in girl only schools were more comfortable with physics. The National Foundation for Educational Research in England also supports that boys and girls do better on test scores and overall grades as compared to coed students regardless of background factors. The study also backs up the Hannover and Kessels study by finding that â€Å"girls at single-sex schools were more likely to take non-traditional courses – courses which run against gender stereotypes† (Single-Sex). Student grades at single-sex schools could be better than expected by both boys and girls because boys and girls in the single sex schools are more comfortable enrolling in contradicting gender-stereotypical classes, like girls interested in computer science, and boys in art. These classes could seem a bit more difficult for some students bringing their overall grade down a bit even if it is in egard to students in different nations or here in America. Researcher for the Australian Council for Educational Research Cornelius Riordan found that most boys and girls who attend single-sex catholic schools were from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, yet these students obtained better grades than coed students (Single- Sex). This backs the study done by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, that socioeconomic background does not play a major role on a student’s grades as thought by many people who oppose single-sex schools. Riordan also found that students in these catholic schools view learning in a more positive manner which ould be another reason as to why students in single-sex schools do much better than coed students. In another study conducted in Jamaica by Marlene Hamilton â€Å"found that students attending single-sex schools out preformed students in coed schools in almost every subject tested† which confirmed the research done in Australia, South Korea, England, and America (Single-Sex). With many studies on students all over the world being consistent, it proves that single-sex schools are better for a student’s education. Not only do single-sex schools benefit a student’s education, but their overall focus and character as well. At Thurgood Marshall Elementary School in Seattle, principle Benjamin Wright led the movement of the schools traditional coed classroom setting to single-sex classrooms. Before this transition he would address over thirty misbehaving children a day, eighty percent of which were boys. In regard to the Washington Assessment of Student Learning, the single-sex classrooms, there were on average one or two students sent to the office for misbehavior a day. The boys reading average rose to sixty-six percent while their writing average also went up to fifty-three percent (Single-Sex). All of this was done under the same teachers for boys and girls. At an inner-city high school in Montr ©al who underwent the same type of transition also saw positive results. The number of students skipping class dropped by thirteen percent to Just seven percent. Fifteen percent more of students passed their final exams as opposed to before where sixty- five passed. Finally, the rate of students continuing their education in college doubled what it used to be before the switch. With these consistent positive results, many schools will turn to the idea of following these footsteps and transition to single-sex schools or classrooms to benefit all students in their education and haracter. Although segregating students by gender has its positive results, it also has negative results in students psychologically and socially. New York Times writer Tamar Lewin stresses â€Å"the strongest argument against single-sex education†¦ is that it reduces boys’ and girls’ opportunities to work together, and reinforces sex stereotypes† (Lewinl). By splitting the two genders apart, students will not know how to properly work together or even communicate with one another. According to the American Psychological Association, â€Å"school is preparation for the adult life and how oys and girls learn to interact will dictate relationships formed in the workplace† (Saunders). As students are separated by gender, they miss vital chances to work with one another and build important social skills. By segregating students, they are missing out on learning those very skills needed outside of school such as an engineering firm where thoughts from multiple engineers take place. A female engineer who spent her entire school life including college in single-sex classes may feel a bit more uncomfortable speaking out her ideas to the male engineers. Not only oes this affect people in the work place, it affects their personal relationships as well, for example, a male trying to meet women to date, becomes much more difficult. If he has spent little or no time communicating with the opposite sex, he may feel shy or awkward. Elizabeth Danish explains: Part of the idea of going to school is to prepare your child for ‘real life’ when they leave. There is no doubt that the real world’ is mixed gender rather than single sex and so that means that the best way to do this would be to emulate that in school. Further, learning to talk to members of he opposite sex is a very important skill and one that can leave you at a significant disadvantage if you’ve never had a chance to practice. By experimenting with relationships now when things are less serious, your child will be better at managing and finding them when they leave (Danish). She also believes that in coed schools students become more understanding of each other and are more open minded of new conditions. Danish then suggests that building a feminine side to men could help them better understand girls and reduce the changes of sexism in schools. The problem with some single-sex schools is that he ideas of men are better than girls or in some cases women are better than men begins to circulate and lowers the self-confidence and self-esteem of some students. Another problem facing single-sex classrooms is lack of trained teachers to What could be done to better benefit students in single-sex schools is to have the two genders attend the same school in different buildings. With this, students could be integrated during lunch hours and for elementary schools even recess. This way the two genders can socialize with one another and not be completely segregated throughout all twelve years of school. This socialization can help prepare boys and girls for life outside and after high school in both work life and relationships with one another. In regards to single-sex classrooms, studies show how boys are encouraged or more engaged in learning subjects can be implemented in teaching methods for specifically boys and vice versa for girls. With this, teachers can know what method of teaching works better so they can use it only for boys and only for girls. The numbers of single-sex schools have been on the rise in the past fifteen years and will continue to go up because they are proving to better benefit student’s education and personality. However, many advocates believe that the psychological and sociological downsides to this form of education are harmful to students and outweigh the positives.